Overview

Handicap scoring converts each boat's elapsed time (ET) into a corrected time (CT) so that boats of different speeds can race fairly against each other. The boat with the lowest corrected time wins.

There are two fundamental approaches:

Time on Time (ToT)

Multiply elapsed time by a correction factor. The correction factor is independent of course distance, making ToT ideal when exact course length is uncertain (e.g. windward-leeward courses with variable wind).

Time on Distance (ToD)

Subtract a time allowance based on course distance. Ratings are in seconds per mile, so you can calculate your standing during the race if you know how far you've sailed.

PHRF — Time on Time (ToT)

PHRF (Performance Handicap Racing Fleet) is the most widely used handicap system in North America. Ratings are assigned in seconds per nautical mile. Lower ratings indicate faster boats.

In ToT mode, PHRF ratings are converted into a Time Correction Factor (TCF), which is multiplied by elapsed time to produce corrected time.

Corrected Time Formula

CT = ET \times TCF = ET \times \frac{A}{B + PHRF}

TCF Formula

TCF = \frac{A}{B + PHRF}

A = \text{Fleet Coefficient}

B = \text{Condition factor}

Choosing A and B

Variable A is the fleet coefficient — choose it so the TCF for the middle of your fleet is close to 1.0. If your median PHRF is about 100 and conditions are average, a good default is:

TCF = \frac{650}{550 + PHRF}

Variable B is a condition factor that adjusts for wind and course type. The lower the B factor, the heavier the wind or the more downwind sailing the course demands. Guidelines:

Conditions	B Factor	Effect
Light air / all upwind	600	Smallest correction spread between boats
Average conditions	550	Standard starting point for most fleets
Heavy air / all downwind	475	Largest correction spread; favors slower boats more

Boat Speed from Rating

The denominator (B + PHRF) represents the seconds per nautical mile in expected conditions. To convert to boat speed:

BSP = \frac{3600}{B + PHRF}

Try it out

PHRF average boatspeed calculator.

PHRF rating

5.55 knots

Fleet Builder

Enter your fleet's PHRF ratings to see optimal A and B coefficients.

Optimal fleet coefficient calculator.

Optimal fleet coefficient: 550

PHRF — Time on Distance (ToD)

In ToD mode, PHRF ratings are used directly in their native unit of seconds per nautical mile. The time allowance is subtracted from the elapsed time.

Corrected Time Formula

CT = ET - (PHRF \times D)

where D = course distance in nautical miles

Time Allowance

\text{Allowance} = PHRF \times D

A boat rated PHRF 120 sailing a 10 NM course receives 1,200 seconds (20 minutes) of allowance subtracted from its elapsed time.

When to use ToD

Course distance is well-known (fixed marks, government marks)
Competitors want to gauge their standing mid-race
Fleet has a narrow PHRF range (similar boat speeds)

ToD vs ToT

ToD is simpler to understand and lets sailors calculate their corrected time during the race. However, ToT adapts better to variable conditions and wider rating spreads because the correction is proportional to time sailed rather than distance.

IRC — Time on Time

IRC (International Rating Certificate) is a secret-formula handicap system managed by the RORC Rating Office and UNCL. Each boat receives a TCC (Time Correction Coefficient) based on detailed measurement data. The formula used to compute TCC is not published — only the resulting coefficient is issued.

Corrected Time Formula

CT = ET \times TCC

TCC = \text{Time Correction Coefficient (issued by RORC)}

A typical TCC ranges from about 0.850 (slow cruiser) to 1.200+ (high-performance racer). Because the TCC already encodes all handicap information, the corrected time formula is simply a multiplication.

Key characteristics

Secret formula — prevents optimization gaming common in open-formula systems
Measurement-based — requires physical measurement or builder's certificate
Time-on-time only — no ToD variant is defined
Widely used internationally — the standard for offshore racing outside North America
Annual certificates — ratings are reviewed and reissued each season

ORC — Time on Distance

ORC (Offshore Racing Congress) uses a velocity prediction program (VPP) to model each boat's performance across a range of wind speeds and angles. From the VPP output, ORC derives Performance Loss/Time (PLT) values in seconds per nautical mile.

Corrected Time Formula

CT = ET - (PLT \times D)

PLT = \text{Performance Loss/Time (seconds per mile)}

where D = course distance in nautical miles

Key characteristics

Open formula — VPP model and calculations are published and transparent
Multiple rating options — ORC certificates include ratings for different wind/course configurations
Measurement-based — requires hull, rig, and sail measurements
Growing international adoption — increasingly popular in Europe and offshore circuits
Course-specific scoring — race committees can select the PLT that best matches actual conditions

ORC vs PHRF ToD

Both use seconds-per-mile subtracted from elapsed time, but ORC ratings come from scientific VPP modeling rather than observed performance. This makes ORC ratings more portable across regions, while PHRF ratings are set by local committees based on local fleet performance.

Scoring Codes & Penalties

When a boat does not finish normally, a scoring code determines the points awarded. These codes follow the Racing Rules of Sailing (RRS) Appendix A unless the Sailing Instructions specify otherwise.

Code	Meaning	Default Score	RRS Rule
DNC	Did Not Come (to the starting area)	Entries + 1	A5.1
DNS	Did Not Start (came but did not start)	Entries + 1	A5.1
OCS	On Course Side (at start signal, did not restart)	Entries + 1	A5.1
BFD	Black Flag Disqualification	Entries + 1 (cannot be discarded)	A5.1
DNF	Did Not Finish	Entries + 1	A5.1
RET	Retired (after finishing or while racing)	Entries + 1	A5.1
DSQ	Disqualified	Entries + 1	A5.1
DNE	Disqualification Not Excludable (cannot be discarded)	Entries + 1	A5.1
DGM	Disqualification — Gross Misconduct	Entries + 1 (cannot be discarded)	A5.1, 69.1
NSC	Did Not Sail the Course	Entries + 1	A5.1
ZFP	20% Penalty under Z Flag Rule	Place + 20% of entries (rounded up)	30.2
SCP	Scoring Penalty (voluntary penalty taken)	Place + percentage per SI	44.3
RDG	Redress Given	As decided by protest committee	64.2
DPI	Discretionary Penalty Imposed	As decided by protest committee	64.1

Scoring Formulas for Penalties

Non-finishing boats (DNC, DNS, OCS, DNF, RET, DSQ, etc.):

Score = \text{Entries} + 1

Z Flag Penalty (ZFP):

Score = \text{Place} + \lceil 0.20 \times \text{Entries} \rceil

Discards

In a multi-race series, Sailing Instructions typically allow boats to discard their worst score(s). However, some penalties are non-discardable: BFD, DNE, and DGM scores must always count in the series total, even if they are the worst result.

Series Scoring

In a series of races, each boat is awarded points equal to its finishing place in each race (1 for first, 2 for second, etc.). The boat with the lowest total points after any discards wins the series.

Tie-breaking

When two or more boats are tied on total points, ties are broken by applying RRS A8:

The boat with the most first-place finishes wins. If still tied:
The boat with the most second-place finishes wins. Continue as needed.
If the tie remains, it stands and each boat receives the best (lowest) tied position.

Quick Reference

System	Method	Rating Unit	Formula	Needs Distance?
PHRF	ToT	sec/NM (converted to TCF)	ET × A/(B+PHRF)	No
PHRF	ToD	sec/NM	ET − PHRF × D	Yes
IRC	ToT	TCC (dimensionless)	ET × TCC	No
ORC	ToD	sec/NM (from VPP)	ET − PLT × D	Yes